“A Comparative Linguistic Analysis of
Anglicisms: 'Mood,' 'Dress Code,' and 'Selfie' in Italian, French, and Spanish”
Authors: Serena Stilo- Paola Canale
Institution:
University for Foreigners “Dante Alighieri” of Reggio Calabria (ITALY)
ABSTRACT
This research offers an insight on
the phenomenon of three Anglicisms: selfie, dress code, and mood used in
Italian, French, and Spanish. Through a flexible study of their integration and
prevalence in the above-mentioned languages, this paper underlines how English
has influenced current vocabulary of different languages. The results show how
these English-borrowed words have been adopted and used in common speech,
demonstrating the impact of globalization on linguistic patterns. This
comparative study sheds light on the spread of anglicizations across languages
and their function in modern discourse. As a matter of fact, English terms have
been incorporated into languages like Italian, French, and Spanish, clearly
demonstrating how contemporary linguistic development has become more and more
rapid and profoundly mixed up.
In Italian, the word mood is
used when describing an emotional condition or environment in informal
conversation or on social media networks, especially among younger generations.
Moreover, the term dress code refers to the general culture about what
is deemed appropriate for dressing in professional or fashion contexts.
A selfie, a new-born word,
is a self-portrait photograph taken by the person with the help of either a
smartphone or a digital camera. This, in essence, is the straight difference
between traditional and self-photography, which involves an individual taking
the picture of themselves by extending their arm out with the camera, or
placing the camera in front of them on a tripod stand or any other valid
support, for example, by the help of a self-stick, for that purpose. A selfie’s
origin can be traced back to the English word self, which stands for
oneself or the self, and the suffix -ie which seems to be an informal English
form added to everyday actions or objects. Such popularity of the given word
points out how these are also linked to a wider cultural phenomenon related to
a growing concern with the self and the emergence of technologies that enable a
new form of image-making and image-sharing instantaneously. The word selfie
has, over the years, become so widely incorporated in several languages that it
has found its place in the most colloquial and formal speeches, not only
surfing the internet websites but also reading out the pages of print media,
posters and even in nowadays dictionaries.
Italian has adopted ‘selfie’ with
ease; the phrase is used without any need for translation, giving rise to
concepts that stem from it, such as selfista. In France, the English term 'selfie'
gradually propagated and it is used among the youth who are inclined to
preserving and sharing their experiences through technology.
Its diffusion into other languages,
for instance, French, has enhanced the process of making this verbal expression
a norm, not simply as a form of an action but also as a particular
sociocultural discourse. The phrase selfiser has been nativized to
comply with the French language's grammatical structure, as seen by the French
creating versions such as this.
By analyzing the lexical items: dress
code and mood in Spanish, we consider that mood is also used
like it is in Italian and French, mostly in conversation and on social media.
Its Spanish equivalent estado de ánimo is more professional and less
common in ordinary conversations; while the word dress code is used in
invitations and business communications, preferring it to código de
vestimenta or normas de etiqueta. Although the French has included
the word code vestimentaire, dress code is also, at the same
time, adopted in French, but that is mainly welcomed in official and commercial
contexts.
The integration of ‘mood’, ‘dress
code’ and ‘selfie’ into Italian, French, and Spanish languages, shows off how
influential English was worldwide in cultural transitions towards more global
and digitalized forms of communication.
“A Comparative Linguistic Analysis of
Anglicisms: 'Mood,' 'Dress Code,' and 'Selfie' in Italian, French, and Spanish”
For most of its history, English
has had little impact on other languages; its current status as the world's
most significant word donor is comparatively recent (Filipović, 1996). English
was more of an importer than an exporter of words, especially following the
Norman conquest in 1066, absorbing many foreign borrowings from sources like
Latin and French. The situation started to shift only in the latter part of the
17th and early 18th centuries. Throughout Europe, interest in England and
English culture started growing initially in France and subsequently in Italy
and other countries. Because of this anglicization process of the 18th century,
English terms were borrowed into French, Spanish, Italian, and other languages.
As far back as the 19th century, intellectuals and cultural institutions in
these nations lamented that the influx of English words and phrases was
escalating (Pulcini, 1997). However, for all these anxieties, English has
survived and expanded – particularly after globalization and the arrival of
mass media. Pulcini (2015:17) emphasized that the global dominance
of English-speaking nations reinforces English as a lingua franca, leading to
an "Anglicization
of European lexis, through the import and assimilation of English words in the
vocabularies of European languages”.
The incorporation of English
terminology into these languages is now not only acceptable but also a
distinguishing characteristic of contemporary linguistic tendencies. This
phenomenon is visible in several fields, including business, popular culture,
digital communication, and technology.
Tracing the path of these terms
through Spanish, Italian and French is a revealing exercise that illustrates
the process of integrating loanwords from English. This linguistic phenomenon
reflects a broader socio-cultural dynamic on a global scale. The adoption and
adaptation of English terms into these languages are not just accidental
borrowings but are closely related to significant social processes such as
globalization, cultural exchange, digital media, and technological progress.
The very fact is that digital
communication is becoming a major attractor for (inter)cultural debates where
it is important to get rid of linguistic boundaries.
These loanwords are common places
where language boundaries become ambiguous and a kind of universal language
code is born. This is especially true of the youth language where words
originally from English are frequently taken and re-translated for local
linguistic purposes while being equally global in their appeal.
For example, words such as "selfie",
"mood" and "dress code" belong to popular
mainstream culture and indeed, they are used almost universally and especially
by young people regardless of their native language, creating a shared
vocabulary that transcends national and linguistic boundaries. This paper
focuses on these three English words (selfie, mood, dress code)
considered as Anglicisms of a pure type or adopted anglicisms,“retained words, obviously of English
heritage, imported in their original spelling” (Furiassi, Pulcini, Rodríguez González,
2012).
These three items revolve around a network of
trends, style, beauty, and friendship in pop culture, a world of modern popular
culture transmitted via the mass media and aimed particularly at younger
people. What is popular, in fact, influences all aspects of existence, such as
customs, ways of living and also languages. Thus, popular attitudes are
elements that contribute to the creation of trends and determine the
penetration of certain trendy words into social life (Noris and Cantoni, 2022).
According to Gerding et al. (2014), Anglicisms[1] about computer technology (e.g., selfie)
or socio-cultural aspects of life (e.g., mood, dress code) have become
widely accepted across several languages, likely due to their "globally
transparent" nature and popularity among an extensive range of young
people from Europe and beyond.
This tendency underlines the role
of English as a global lingua franca, particularly in digital and media-driven
communication. It also illustrates how languages are evolving in response to
socio-cultural influences, with younger generations leading the way in adopting
these new linguistic codes. As these English terms become entrenched in
everyday language, they contribute to the development of a more interconnected
and culturally fluid global society. In this sense, the integration of
Anglicisms can be seen as part of a larger process of linguistic and cultural
convergence, in which global influences shape local languages and local
language use in turn shapes the global linguistic landscape.
The proliferation of Anglicisms has
been expedited by the global impact of American and British media, encompassing
social media platforms, music, film, and television (Crystal, 2003) and it can
be attributed to the dominance of English as the lingua franca of international
communication, science, and technology. For example, the ubiquity of social
media sites like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter has led to the influx of
English-derived phrases into the vernacular of young people, who frequently use
them without context.
English is perceived as a lingua
franca in many professional and creative fields, including fashion. For
instance, fashion acts as a worldwide trendsetter and a popular culture
barometer, reflecting individuals’ cultural identities, values, symbols, as
well as societal elements related to art, status and technologies (Hancock,
2019). The phenomenon of anglicization in the fashion industry is exemplified
by a lot of word examples, but in this case study, we focus on the widespread
adoption of the term "dress code”, a key fashion-related term,
well-grounded in society by now. This expression, originally rooted in English,
has transcended linguistic boundaries and found a place in various languages,
including Italian. The term refers to the set of rules or expectations
regarding appropriate attire for specific occasions, which has become
increasingly relevant in our globalized society.
The prominence of fashion centers such as
London and New York enhances the prestige associated with English terminology.
This elevated status motivates non-English speakers to incorporate English
expressions, such as "dress code," into daily discourse. Major
fashion brands, frequently originating from English-speaking countries, employ
English in their marketing strategies. This approach not only advances their
products but also integrates the English language into the fabric of
international fashion culture. The spread of English fashion terms, like
"dress code," highlights the ongoing connection between language and
culture in today's digital world. As fashion evolves globally, the language
surrounding it will also change, creating a rich blend of linguistic and
cultural exchange.
According to [2](2003:
120-123), the natural adaptation of Anglicisms in Italian indicates that
“Italians willingly use these terms to respond to the context around them and
to the globalized world.
In Italian, for
instance, the expression "dress code" is often used in formal and
informal settings, reflecting a growing awareness of international fashion
standards. Italian businesses, schools, and social events frequently adopt the
term, indicating a shift towards a more globalized understanding of style and
propriety. This trend shows how English fashion vocabulary is smoothly blended into
Italian conversations, where some lexical items may lack direct translations or
convey different cultural meanings. Italian brands are increasingly using
English phrases to reach a wider audience, which reinforces the use of terms
like "dress code." Additionally, social media platforms like
Instagram and TikTok play a big role in spreading fashion trends and language.
Influencers and brands often use English, leading to the quick spread of
expressions like "dress code" across different languages. The speed
of digital communication allows for real-time changes in fashion language,
making it easier for a global audience to understand. The merging of English
terms with Italian not only represents language borrowing but also indicates a
cultural shift. While "dress code" keeps its original meaning, it can
also reflect specific cultural traits. For instance, in Italy, a "dress
code" for a wedding might be understood through traditional Italian
styles, blending the English idea with local customs.
In French and Spanish, the reception of the loanword "dress
code" shows a complex interaction between native purist institutions and
the strong impact of global fashion discussions.
In French, the English term "dress code" is commonly used in
casual talks, digital marketing, workplaces, and social media. However,
language planning groups like the Académie française and the Commission
d’enrichissement de la langue française push for native alternatives. The
officially suggested French translation is code vestimentaire, or tenue
exigée for formal invitations. Linguists who study French anglicisms, such as
John Humbley, Tibor Őrsi, and Henriette Walter, note a dual tendency within the
language. Prestige media, corporate human resources, and youth culture often
use "dress code" as a sign of modernity. In contrast, formal contexts
and mainstream journalism typically prefer code vestimentaire. This
situation highlights the ongoing influence of French language policies in
providing functional native alternatives while still allowing some unadapted
anglicisms to enter everyday use.
In Spanish, a similar conflict exists between institutional advice and
everyday usage. The Real Academia Española (RAE) and the Fundación del Español
Urgente (FundéuRAE) recommend replacing "dress code" with native
phrases like código de vestimenta, reglas de vestimenta, or
simply etiqueta. Sociolinguists and experts in Spanish fashion
anglicisms, such as Felix Rodríguez González, who edits the Gran Diccionario de
Anglicismos, and Isabel Balteiro, have recorded how English fashion terms
infiltrate Spanish discourse. Their findings show that while "dress
code" is widely used by fashion influencers, lifestyle magazines, and
multinational companies to convey worldliness, native terms like código de
vestimenta hold significant ground in formal documents, administrative
situations, and mainstream media.
As a result, both French and Spanish feature a dual vocabulary. The
unmodified English term "dress code" acts as a stylistic sign of
modernity and global trends in informal or commercial areas. Meanwhile, code
vestimentaire and código de vestimenta uphold institutional
standards and provide clear meaning in formal communication.
Other examples of phrases such as
"selfie", along with other popular terms like "hashtag,"
and "internet" have become commonplace in Italian, French, and
Spanish, frequently with little to no alteration (Gottlieb, 2005). These
words commonly convey a feeling of modernity and interconnectedness, either
replacing preexisting phrases or covering lexical gaps in the target languages. The term
"selfie" has become more than simply a fad in the digital age; it has
become a deeply embedded cultural phenomenon, especially among younger
generations. This new cultural practice has been greatly influenced by the
widespread use of smartphones, and social media sites such as Instagram, Snapchat, and
TikTok. Apart from being a picture, the selfie is an act of
self-affirmation and self-representation, and it reflects a need for worldwide
connection and social approval. Once seen as a novelty, selfies “are socially
legitimated as part of everyday life and undoubtedly an established global
cultural phenomenon” (David, 2015: 84). It is so interwoven in the fabric of
current life that its usage and importance transcend linguistic and cultural
divides.
These words commonly convey a
feeling of modernity and interconnectedness, either replacing preexisting
phrases or covering lexical gaps in the target languages[3].
The term "selfie" has become more than simply a fad in the digital
age; it has become a deeply embedded cultural phenomena, especially among
younger generations.
Despite
coming from the English-speaking world, the term "selfie" has gained
widespread understanding and acceptance in a variety of languages and cultures.
A crucial point is highlighted by the term selfie's broad usage: the digital
age has brought about a new kind of linguistic and cultural globalization where words, particularly those associated
with technology and social media, are readily adopted and modified across
various linguistic communities. Because of their widespread use, these phrases
are frequently incorporated into different languages with little change. As a
result, the term "selfie" is now so widely used and understood that
it cuts beyond linguistic barriers, becoming natural to use the term in other
languages.
These languages frequently adapt
and change phrases from English to suit their morphological and phonetic
systems, producing hybrid forms that expand their vocabulary even more, such as
the Spanish “selfi”, (similar to the phenomenon of the verb "textear"
= to text), and the Italian selfi” (similar to the phenomenon of "googlare"
(to google), for instance, show how Anglicisms are not only adopted but
also incorporated into the language's grammatical structure (Onysko &
Michel, 2010). As affirmed by Furiassi
et al. (2012), the assimilation of English vocabulary needs to be regarded as
an organic progression of linguistic development, mirroring the continuous
engagement between many cultures and languages. Furthermore, the development of
language involves more than just passively absorbing foreign vocabulary.
The acceptance and modification of
Anglicisms demonstrate how dynamic such languages are and how they may change
in reaction to outside forces. The truth is that these languages are expanding
and adjusting to a globalized environment rather than losing their uniqueness,
despite the ongoing concerns about linguistic purity.
In Spanish, for example, el/la/un/una selfie are
currently used by Spanish speakers of both genders, an ambivalence that creates
problems for gender-based grammatical structures and other aspects of their use
in discourse (Muñoz-Basols & Salazar, 2019). La
Fundación del Español Urgente (Fundéu)[4],
created in 2005, is an entity in charge of monitoring the entry of new words in
Spanish (especially focusing on the mass media) and it, for example, has
recently recommended using the Spanish alternative autofoto, instead of
the Anglicism selfie (Muñoz-Basols&Salazar, 2006). Indeed,
Muñoz-Basols and Salazar (2016:86), in their study, brought to life important
reasons for borrowing and adapting English words in Spanish and such reasons
may range from “a desire for greater concreteness and linguistic brevity, or
clarity of expression (e.g., agencia de rating vs. agencia de calificación
crediticia), best evidenced in newspaper headlines (such as No hay
default) [...]as well as emphasis, amusement or trendiness in advertising
(e.g., fashionista)”.
In French, the word "selfie"
is more popular in French than its original equivalent,
"égoportrait," rarely used in everyday language, since the English
term frequently predominates. The word "selfie" has spread throughout
the world of social media and entered the vocabulary of the French language.
Even where there are alternative expressions, even if technically accurate or
more "French" in form, they are not necessarily used in French, as in
many other languages. For example, the phrase "égoportrait" can be
used, meaning "self-portrait," but it would still have a different
meaning than "selfie”. Several French scholars and linguists have explored
this phenomenon. Le Petit Robert et Le Petit Larousse is a
resource that tracks new terms entering the French language, the authors note
the rise of "selfie" and its wide adoption, as a part of a broader
pattern of "anglicization" in modern French. They argue that the
widespread use of "selfie" is a result of the global influence of
English, particularly through the media and the internet, which has made
English terms more recognizable and appealing than French.
In Combat pour le français. Au nom de la diversité
des langues et des cultures, the French linguist Claude Hagège (2006) analyses
several English terms in various domains such as technology, business, and
social media and suggests that in many contexts, French speakers prefer the
English term "selfie," which are strongly tied to digital culture and
global connectivity, because it is shorter, more internationally recognized,
and often perceived as cooler or more modern than its French equivalents.
Moreover, he examines how French speakers,
especially younger generations, have integrated the term "selfie"
into their everyday jargon. He notes that these Anglicisms often emerge when it
may not have had a pre-existing term in French. He argues that selfie has
become so widely accepted and embedded in the language that it feels natural to
use it, even if égoportrait could be a technically accurate substitute
(Hagège, 2006). In summary, the
widespread use of "selfie" over "égoportrait" in French is
a reflection of how language adapts to modern influences. This trend has been
documented in various works on linguistics and the evolution of modern French.
"Égoportrait," while a valid and formal term, simply has not achieved
the same level of ubiquity as its English counterpart.
We can mention an interesting case
where a Snapchat[5]
study was based on two guided focus group sessions done with Parisian groups of
adolescents[6],
where David studies the Snapchat dynamics, by affirming that they provoke
“strong attachment between individuals, transforms these personal photos and
videos into social currency with affective value” (David, 2015:80).
In
this work, we understood that the word "selfie" carries with it the
dimension of an ephemeral and short-term sharing that young people seek, a
proof of the fleeting reality and this is the key concept of the photos taken
via Snapchat on mobile devices, that of making the paradigm "here and
now" (hic en nunc) law, of crystallizing fleeting and carefree
moments, distancing for a moment the problems of real reality. Indeed, the
author claims that “possessing the picture is not the goal for participants,
rather their purpose is to have fun, to laugh and be connected immediately in a
short-term sharing” (ibidem:84).
The
importance of this term, therefore, opens an extent related to young people,
which as in French is also common in other contexts, such as Italian
and Spanish. If the equivalent were used in their own language, this
would lead young people to connect it to a real dimension linked to their local
reality, while using the foreign word "selfie" makes everything more
universal and alien, which is what young people are looking for. It could be
emphasized that these short-lived iconic sharing practices underscore that the
meaning given to the aesthetics of a photo is no longer the core of its
material essence, but rather its immediacy combined with its mobile, private
and intimate shareability (ibidem, 86). So, if in Italian (autoscatto),
in Spanish (autofoto) and in French (égoportrait) refer only to
my unique identity (self), with the word selfie a different
scenario is envisioned, where I share myself with others and wih a virtual
community.
To conclude, in this paper we
outlined some of the stages that Anglicisms go through as they enter the Spanish,
French, and Italian languages, focusing on specific examples such as
"mood”, “dress code" and "selfie" as case studies. In these
languages, the use of these three phrases has increased significantly in recent
past. To what extent do
recent anglicisms (e.g., mood, dress code, selfie) retain
their original spelling and phonology (foreignisms) as opposed to
undergoing orthographic adaptation (e.g., selfi) or morphological
adaptation (e.g., ghostare) across the different languages in the
corpus? The answer is that these words originally appeared in a variety of
contexts and they were either adopted as foreignisms in their original forms (mood,
selfie, dress code), or they were modified orthographically (“selfi” in
Spanish and Italian), partly as a result of recommendations from language
institutions. This research aimed at highlighting the socio-cultural
significance of linguistic borrowings and the role of youth in shaping global
linguistic trends.
A promising area for future
research involves looking into how recent anglicisms, specifically common
English loanwords such as mood, dress code, and selfie, keep their
original spelling and sound as unadapted foreign words or change in spelling
(for example, selfi in Spanish and Italian). Future studies may use a
mixed approach that combines historical corpus linguistics with surveys among
young people to track these changes over time. By comparing how different
language systems and institutions, such as prescriptive academies and
descriptive language boards, respond to English borrowings, future researches
could provide better insights into the interaction between language contact,
morphological flexibility, and the social factors that influence global word
integration.
Besides formal text collections and
institutional dictionaries, an important aspect of expanding this research is
to examine how young people use terms like mood, dress code, and selfie
in their everyday language (langue des jeunes, lenguaje juvenil, linguaggio
giovanile). As digital communication becomes a key area for language
change, younger generations act as the main adopters of loanwords, shifts in
meaning, and changes in structure. Further studies could collect and analyze
digital ethnographic data, like instant messaging logs, WhatsApp/Telegram
chats, and video comments on platforms like TikTok and Instagram, from young
native speakers of Spanish, Italian, and French. Comparing these three Romance
languages presents valuable opportunities for cross-language analysis. Although
all share a common Latin background and similar structures, their speech
communities show different social attitudes, institutional influences, and
varying views on English borrowings.
Studying casual chats and informal
interactions could show how young speakers handle words like selfie,
which often compete with native alternatives or alternate spellings like selfi.
They also use mood as an independent marker or emotional tag. Research
can explore how these borrowed terms blend into the local language or become
more specific to see if they follow the same patterns or diverge based on each
language's structure. Moreover, such studies could assess whether young
speakers see these anglicisms as just practical words when native options are
missing, or as signs of closeness, irony, and belonging to a peer group. By
examining code-switching, the use of pragmatic particles, and playful spelling
changes in everyday conversations, future research can capture the ongoing
changes in these loanwords before they either fade away as trendy slang or
become established in common use. Ultimately, including youth language and
online communication in comparative studies will connect static dictionary definitions
with the dynamic reality of modern multilingual interaction.
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[1] Gottlieb's definition of
Anglicisms is interesting: "any individual or systemic language feature
adapted or adopted from English, or inspired or boosted by English models, used
in intralingual communication in a language other than English” (2005: 163).
[2] Furiassi
highlighted, the reasons for choosing an Anglicisms often seem correlated to
“the taste for the exotic” and “the charm of a foreign language” (2010: 63).
[3] Sometimes, as Gottlieb affirms, the
preponderant occurrence of English words into young people’s language means
that there is no lack of a corresponding native term, but rather this
intentional choice of Anglicism is the result of an internalized acquisition of
loanwords (2005).
[4] “La Fundación del
Español Urgente —FundéuRAE (The Urgent Spanish Foundation —FundéuRAE) is a non-profit institution whose main
objective is to promote the proper use of Spanish in the media. Promoted by the
Real Academia Española (RAE) and the EFE Agency, it was created in 2005 as a
result of an agreement between EFE and the BBVA bank, with the advice of the
Real Academia Española” (https://www.fundeu.es/Sobrefundeubbva/quienes-somos/ ).
[5] Snapchat
is a social network much loved by the youngest. In this application, you can
post snaps (photos, selfies and videos to be made directly from the
application) and for this reason, it is a place where it is possible to find a
lot of English words spoken by young people from all over the world.
[6] The
study was carried out in Paris between May and June 2014. One session consisted of a group of five
16-17-year-old French, female teenage friends, and the other session of a five
16-year-old French, male, teenage friends.
