paper: “A Comparative Linguistic
Analysis of Anglicisms: 'Mood,' 'Dress Code,' and 'Selfie' in Italian, French,
and Spanish”
Authors: Serena Stilo- Paola Canale
Institution: University for
Foreigners “Dante Alighieri” of Reggio Calabria (ITALY)
ABSTRACT
This research offers an insight
on the phenomenon of three Anglicisms: selfie, dress code, and mood used in
Italian, French, and Spanish. Through a flexible study of their integration and
prevalence in the above-mentioned languages, this paper underlines how English
has influenced current vocabulary of different languages. The results show how
these English-borrowed words have been adopted and used in common speech,
demonstrating the impact of globalization on linguistic patterns. This
comparative study sheds light on the spread of anglicizations across languages
and their function in modern discourse. As a matter of fact, English terms have
been incorporated into languages like Italian, French, and Spanish, clearly
demonstrating how contemporary linguistic development has become more and more
rapid and profoundly mixed up.
In Italian, the word mood is used
when describing an emotional condition or environment in informal conversation
or on social media networks, especially among younger generations. Moreover,
the term dress code refers to the general culture about what is deemed
appropriate for dressing in professional or fashion contexts.
A selfie, a new-born word, is a
self-portrait photograph taken by the person with the help of either a
smartphone or a digital camera. This, in essence, is the straight difference
between traditional and self-photography, which involves an individual taking
the picture of themselves by extending their arm out with the camera, or
placing the camera in front of them on a tripod stand or any other valid
support, for example, by the help of a self-stick, for that purpose. A selfie’s
origin can be traced back to the English word self, which stands for oneself or
the self, and the suffix -ie which seems to be an informal English form added
to everyday actions or objects. Such popularity of the given word points out
how these are also linked to a wider cultural phenomenon related to a growing
concern with the self and the emergence of technologies that enable a new form
of image-making and image-sharing instantaneously. The word selfie has, over
the years, become so widely incorporated in several languages that it has found
its place in the most colloquial and formal speeches, not only surfing the
internet websites but also reading out the pages of print media, posters and
even in nowadays dictionaries.
Italian has adopted ‘selfie’ with
ease; the phrase is used without any need for translation, giving rise to
concepts that stem from it, such as selfista.
In France, the English term 'selfie' gradually propagated and it is used
among the youth who are inclined to preserving and sharing their experiences
through technology.
Its diffusion into other
languages, for instance, French, has enhanced the process of making this verbal
expression a norm, not simply as a form of an action but also as a particular
sociocultural discourse. The phrase selfiser has been nativized to comply with
the French language's grammatical structure, as seen by the French creating
versions such as this.
By analyzing the lexical items: dress
code and mood in Spanish, we consider that mood is also used like it is in
Italian and French, mostly in conversation and on social media. Its Spanish
equivalent estado de ánimo is more professional and less common in ordinary
conversations; while the word dress code is used in invitations and business
communications, preferring it to código de vestimenta or normas de etiqueta.
Although the French has included the word code vestimentaire, dress code is
also, at the same time, adopted in French, but that is mainly welcomed in
official and commercial contexts.
The integration of ‘mood’, ‘dress
code’ and ‘selfie’ into Italian, French, and Spanish languages, shows off how
influential English was worldwide in cultural transitions towards more global
and digitalized forms of communication.
“A Comparative Linguistic
Analysis of Anglicisms: 'Mood,' 'Dress Code,' and 'Selfie' in Italian, French,
and Spanish”
For most of its history, English
has had little impact on other languages; its current status as the world's
most significant word donor is comparatively recent (Filipović, 1996). English
was more of an importer than an exporter of words, especially following the
Norman conquest in 1066, absorbing many foreign borrowings from sources like
Latin and French. The situation started to shift only in the latter part of the
17th and early 18th centuries. Throughout Europe, interest in England and
English culture started growing initially in France and subsequently in Italy
and other countries. Because of this anglicization process of the 18th century,
English terms were borrowed into French, Spanish, Italian, and other languages.
As far back as the 19th century, intellectuals and cultural institutions in
these nations lamented that the influx of English words and phrases was
escalating (Pulcini, 1997). However, for all these anxieties, English has
survived and expanded – particularly after globalization and the arrival of
mass media. Pulcini (2015:17) emphasized that the global dominance of
English-speaking nations reinforces English as a lingua franca, leading to an "Anglicization
of European lexis, through the import and assimilation of English words in the
vocabularies of European languages”.
The incorporation of English
terminology into these languages is now not only acceptable but also a
distinguishing characteristic of contemporary linguistic tendencies. This
phenomenon is visible in several fields, including business, popular culture,
digital communication, and technology.
Tracing the path of these terms
through Spanish, Italian and French is a revealing exercise that illustrates
the process of integrating loanwords from English. This linguistic phenomenon
reflects a broader socio-cultural dynamic on a global scale. The adoption and
adaptation of English terms into these languages are not just accidental
borrowings but are closely related to significant social processes such as
globalization, cultural exchange, digital media, and technological progress.
The very fact is that digital
communication is becoming a major attractor for (inter)cultural debates where
it is important to get rid of linguistic boundaries.
These loanwords are common places
where language boundaries become ambiguous and a kind of universal language
code is born. This is especially true of the youth language where words
originally from English are frequently taken and re-translated for local
linguistic purposes while being equally global in their appeal.
For example, words such as "selfie",
"mood" and "dress code" belong to popular mainstream
culture and indeed, they are used almost universally and especially by young
people regardless of their native language, creating a shared vocabulary that
transcends national and linguistic boundaries. This paper focuses on these
three English words (selfie, mood, dress code) considered as Anglicisms of a pure type or adopted
anglicisms,“retained words, obviously of English heritage, imported in their
original spelling” (Furiassi, Pulcini, Rodríguez González, 2012).
These three items revolve around
a network of trends, style, beauty, and friendship in pop culture, a world of
modern popular culture transmitted via the mass media and aimed particularly at
younger people. What is popular, in fact, influences all aspects of existence,
such as customs, ways of living and also languages. Thus, popular attitudes are
elements that contribute to the creation of trends and determine the
penetration of certain trendy words into social life (Noris and Cantoni, 2022).
According to Gerding et al. (2014), Anglicisms[1] about computer technology (e.g., selfie)
or socio-cultural aspects of life (e.g., mood, dress code) have become widely
accepted across several languages, likely due to their "globally
transparent" nature and popularity among an extensive range of young
people from Europe and beyond.
This tendency underlines the role
of English as a global lingua franca, particularly in digital and media-driven
communication. It also illustrates how languages are evolving in response to
socio-cultural influences, with younger generations leading the way in adopting
these new linguistic codes. As these English terms become entrenched in
everyday language, they contribute to the development of a more interconnected
and culturally fluid global society. In this sense, the integration of
Anglicisms can be seen as part of a larger process of linguistic and cultural
convergence, in which global influences shape local languages and local
language use in turn shapes the global linguistic landscape.
The proliferation of Anglicisms
has been expedited by the global impact of American and British media,
encompassing social media platforms, music, film, and television (Crystal,
2003) and it can be attributed to the dominance of English as the lingua franca
of international communication, science, and technology. For example, the
ubiquity of social media sites like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter has led to
the influx of English-derived phrases into the vernacular of young people, who
frequently use them without context.
English is perceived as a lingua
franca in many professional and creative fields, including fashion. For
instance, fashion acts as a worldwide trendsetter and a popular culture
barometer, reflecting individuals’ cultural identities, values, symbols, as
well as societal elements related to art, status and technologies (Hancock,
2019). The phenomenon of anglicization in the fashion industry is exemplified
by a lot of word examples, but in this case study, we focus on the widespread
adoption of the term "dress code”, a key fashion-related term,
well-grounded in society by now. This expression, originally rooted in English,
has transcended linguistic boundaries and found a place in various languages,
including Italian. The term refers to the set of rules or expectations
regarding appropriate attire for specific occasions, which has become
increasingly relevant in our globalized society.
The prominence of fashion centers
such as London and New York enhances the prestige associated with English
terminology. This elevated status motivates non-English speakers to incorporate
English expressions, such as "dress code," into daily discourse.
Major fashion brands, frequently originating from English-speaking countries,
employ English in their marketing strategies. This approach not only advances
their products but also integrates the English language into the fabric of
international fashion culture. The spread of English fashion terms, like
"dress code," highlights the ongoing connection between language and
culture in today's digital world. As fashion evolves globally, the language
surrounding it will also change, creating a rich blend of linguistic and
cultural exchange.
According to [2](2003:
120-123), the natural adaptation of Anglicisms in Italian indicates that
“Italians willingly use these terms to respond to the context around them and
to the globalized world.
In
Italian, for instance, the expression "dress code" is often used in
formal and informal settings, reflecting a growing awareness of international
fashion standards. Italian businesses, schools, and social events frequently
adopt the term, indicating a shift towards a more globalized understanding of
style and propriety. This trend shows how English fashion vocabulary is
smoothly blended into Italian conversations, where some lexical items may lack
direct translations or convey different cultural meanings. Italian brands are
increasingly using English phrases to reach a wider audience, which reinforces
the use of terms like "dress code." Additionally, social media
platforms like Instagram and TikTok play a big role in spreading fashion trends
and language. Influencers and brands often use English, leading to the quick
spread of expressions like "dress code" across different languages.
The speed of digital communication allows for real-time changes in fashion
language, making it easier for a global audience to understand. The merging of
English terms with Italian not only represents language borrowing but also
indicates a cultural shift. While "dress code" keeps its original
meaning, it can also reflect specific cultural traits. For instance, in Italy,
a "dress code" for a wedding might be understood through traditional
Italian styles, blending the English idea with local customs.
In French and Spanish, the
reception of the loanword "dress code" shows a complex interaction
between native purist institutions and the strong impact of global fashion
discussions.
In French, the English term
"dress code" is commonly used in casual talks, digital marketing,
workplaces, and social media. However, language planning groups like the
Académie française and the Commission d’enrichissement de la langue française
push for native alternatives. The officially suggested French translation is code
vestimentaire, or tenue exigée for formal invitations. Linguists who study
French anglicisms, such as John Humbley, Tibor Őrsi, and Henriette Walter, note
a dual tendency within the language. Prestige media, corporate human resources,
and youth culture often use "dress code" as a sign of modernity. In
contrast, formal contexts and mainstream journalism typically prefer code
vestimentaire. This situation highlights the ongoing influence of French
language policies in providing functional native alternatives while still
allowing some unadapted anglicisms to enter everyday use.
In Spanish, a similar conflict
exists between institutional advice and everyday usage. The Real Academia
Española (RAE) and the Fundación del Español Urgente (FundéuRAE) recommend
replacing "dress code" with native phrases like código de vestimenta,
reglas de vestimenta, or simply etiqueta. Sociolinguists and experts in Spanish
fashion anglicisms, such as Felix Rodríguez González, who edits the Gran
Diccionario de Anglicismos, and Isabel Balteiro, have recorded how English
fashion terms infiltrate Spanish discourse. Their findings show that while
"dress code" is widely used by fashion influencers, lifestyle
magazines, and multinational companies to convey worldliness, native terms like
código de vestimenta hold significant ground in formal documents,
administrative situations, and mainstream media.
As a result, both French and
Spanish feature a dual vocabulary. The unmodified English term "dress
code" acts as a stylistic sign of modernity and global trends in informal
or commercial areas. Meanwhile, code vestimentaire and código de vestimenta
uphold institutional standards and provide clear meaning in formal
communication.
Other examples of phrases such as
"selfie", along with other popular terms like "hashtag,"
and "internet" have become commonplace in Italian, French, and
Spanish, frequently with little to no alteration (Gottlieb, 2005). These words
commonly convey a feeling of modernity and interconnectedness, either replacing
preexisting phrases or covering lexical gaps in the target languages. The term
"selfie" has become more than simply a fad in the digital age; it has
become a deeply embedded cultural phenomenon, especially among younger
generations. This new cultural practice has been greatly influenced by the
widespread use of smartphones, and social media sites such as Instagram,
Snapchat, and TikTok. Apart from being a picture, the selfie is an act of
self-affirmation and self-representation, and it reflects a need for worldwide
connection and social approval. Once seen as a novelty, selfies “are socially
legitimated as part of everyday life and undoubtedly an established global
cultural phenomenon” (David, 2015: 84). It is so interwoven in the fabric of
current life that its usage and importance transcend linguistic and cultural
divides.
These words commonly convey a
feeling of modernity and interconnectedness, either replacing preexisting
phrases or covering lexical gaps in the target languages[3].
The term "selfie" has become more than simply a fad in the digital
age; it has become a deeply embedded cultural phenomena, especially among
younger generations.
Despite coming from the English-speaking
world, the term "selfie" has gained widespread understanding and
acceptance in a variety of languages and cultures. A crucial point is
highlighted by the term selfie's broad usage: the digital age has brought about
a new kind of linguistic and cultural globalization where words, particularly
those associated with technology and social media, are readily adopted and
modified across various linguistic communities. Because of their widespread
use, these phrases are frequently incorporated into different languages with
little change. As a result, the term "selfie" is now so widely used
and understood that it cuts beyond linguistic barriers, becoming natural to use
the term in other languages.
These languages frequently adapt
and change phrases from English to suit their morphological and phonetic
systems, producing hybrid forms that expand their vocabulary even more, such as
the Spanish “selfi”, (similar to the phenomenon of the verb "textear"
= to text), and the Italian selfi” (similar to the phenomenon of "googlare"
(to google), for instance, show how Anglicisms are not only adopted but also
incorporated into the language's grammatical structure (Onysko & Michel,
2010). As affirmed by Furiassi et al. (2012),
the assimilation of English vocabulary needs to be regarded as an organic
progression of linguistic development, mirroring the continuous engagement
between many cultures and languages. Furthermore, the development of language
involves more than just passively absorbing foreign vocabulary.
The acceptance and modification
of Anglicisms demonstrate how dynamic such languages are and how they may
change in reaction to outside forces. The truth is that these languages are
expanding and adjusting to a globalized environment rather than losing their
uniqueness, despite the ongoing concerns about linguistic purity.
In Spanish, for example, el/la/un/una
selfie are currently used by Spanish speakers of both genders, an ambivalence
that creates problems for gender-based grammatical structures and other aspects
of their use in discourse (Muñoz-Basols & Salazar, 2019). La Fundación del Español Urgente (Fundéu)[4], created in 2005, is an entity in charge
of monitoring the entry of new words in Spanish (especially focusing on the
mass media) and it, for example, has recently recommended using the Spanish
alternative autofoto, instead of the Anglicism selfie
(Muñoz-Basols&Salazar, 2006). Indeed, Muñoz-Basols and Salazar (2016:86),
in their study, brought to life important reasons for borrowing and adapting English
words in Spanish and such reasons may range from “a desire for greater
concreteness and linguistic brevity, or clarity of expression (e.g., agencia de
rating vs. agencia de calificación crediticia), best evidenced in newspaper
headlines (such as No hay default) [...]as well as emphasis, amusement or
trendiness in advertising (e.g., fashionista)”.
In French, the word "selfie"
is more popular in French than its original equivalent,
"égoportrait," rarely used in everyday language, since the English
term frequently predominates. The word "selfie" has spread throughout
the world of social media and entered the vocabulary of the French language.
Even where there are alternative expressions, even if technically accurate or
more "French" in form, they are not necessarily used in French, as in
many other languages. For example, the phrase "égoportrait" can be
used, meaning "self-portrait," but it would still have a different
meaning than "selfie”. Several French scholars and linguists have explored
this phenomenon. Le Petit Robert et Le Petit Larousse is a resource that tracks
new terms entering the French language, the authors note the rise of
"selfie" and its wide adoption, as a part of a broader pattern of
"anglicization" in modern French. They argue that the widespread use
of "selfie" is a result of the global influence of English,
particularly through the media and the internet, which has made English terms
more recognizable and appealing than French.
In Combat pour le français. Au
nom de la diversité des langues et des cultures, the French linguist Claude
Hagège (2006) analyses several English terms in various domains such as
technology, business, and social media and suggests that in many contexts,
French speakers prefer the English term "selfie," which are strongly
tied to digital culture and global connectivity, because it is shorter, more
internationally recognized, and often perceived as cooler or more modern than
its French equivalents.
Moreover, he examines how French
speakers, especially younger generations, have integrated the term
"selfie" into their everyday jargon. He notes that these Anglicisms
often emerge when it may not have had a pre-existing term in French. He argues
that selfie has become so widely accepted and embedded in the language that it
feels natural to use it, even if égoportrait could be a technically accurate
substitute (Hagège, 2006). In summary, the widespread use of "selfie"
over "égoportrait" in French is a reflection of how language adapts
to modern influences. This trend has been documented in various works on
linguistics and the evolution of modern French. "Égoportrait," while
a valid and formal term, simply has not achieved the same level of ubiquity as
its English counterpart.
We can mention an interesting
case where a Snapchat[5] study was based on two guided focus
group sessions done with Parisian groups of adolescents[6],
where David studies the Snapchat dynamics, by affirming that they provoke
“strong attachment between individuals, transforms these personal photos and
videos into social currency with affective value” (David, 2015:80).
In this work, we understood that
the word "selfie" carries with it the dimension of an ephemeral and
short-term sharing that young people seek, a proof of the fleeting reality and
this is the key concept of the photos taken via Snapchat on mobile devices,
that of making the paradigm "here and now" (hic en nunc) law, of
crystallizing fleeting and carefree moments, distancing for a moment the
problems of real reality. Indeed, the author claims that “possessing the
picture is not the goal for participants, rather their purpose is to have fun,
to laugh and be connected immediately in a short-term sharing” (ibidem:84).
The importance of this term,
therefore, opens an extent related to young people, which as in French is also
common in other contexts, such as Italian and Spanish. If the equivalent were
used in their own language, this would lead young people to connect it to a
real dimension linked to their local reality, while using the foreign word
"selfie" makes everything more universal and alien, which is what young
people are looking for. It could be emphasized that these short-lived iconic
sharing practices underscore that the meaning given to the aesthetics of a
photo is no longer the core of its material essence, but rather its immediacy
combined with its mobile, private and intimate shareability (ibidem, 86). So,
if in Italian (autoscatto), in Spanish (autofoto) and in French (égoportrait)
refer only to my unique identity (self), with the word selfie a different
scenario is envisioned, where I share myself with others and wih a virtual
community.
To conclude, in this paper we
outlined some of the stages that Anglicisms go through as they enter the Spanish,
French, and Italian languages, focusing on specific examples such as
"mood”, “dress code" and "selfie" as case studies. In these
languages, the use of these three phrases has increased significantly in recent
past. To what extent do recent anglicisms (e.g., mood, dress code, selfie)
retain their original spelling and phonology (foreignisms) as opposed to
undergoing orthographic adaptation (e.g., selfi) or morphological adaptation
(e.g., ghostare) across the different languages in the corpus? The answer is
that these words originally appeared in a variety of contexts and they were
either adopted as foreignisms in their original forms (mood, selfie, dress code),
or they were modified orthographically (“selfi” in Spanish and Italian), partly
as a result of recommendations from language institutions. This research aimed
at highlighting the socio-cultural significance of linguistic borrowings and
the role of youth in shaping global linguistic trends.
A promising area for future
research involves looking into how recent anglicisms, specifically common
English loanwords such as mood, dress code, and selfie, keep their original
spelling and sound as unadapted foreign words or change in spelling (for
example, selfi in Spanish and Italian). Future studies may use a mixed approach
that combines historical corpus linguistics with surveys among young people to
track these changes over time. By comparing how different language systems and
institutions, such as prescriptive academies and descriptive language boards,
respond to English borrowings, future researches could provide better insights
into the interaction between language contact, morphological flexibility, and
the social factors that influence global word integration.
Besides formal text collections
and institutional dictionaries, an important aspect of expanding this research
is to examine how young people use terms like mood, dress code, and selfie in
their everyday language (langue des jeunes, lenguaje juvenil, linguaggio
giovanile). As digital communication becomes a key area for language change,
younger generations act as the main adopters of loanwords, shifts in meaning,
and changes in structure. Further studies could collect and analyze digital
ethnographic data, like instant messaging logs, WhatsApp/Telegram chats, and
video comments on platforms like TikTok and Instagram, from young native
speakers of Spanish, Italian, and French. Comparing these three Romance
languages presents valuable opportunities for cross-language analysis. Although
all share a common Latin background and similar structures, their speech
communities show different social attitudes, institutional influences, and
varying views on English borrowings.
Studying casual chats and
informal interactions could show how young speakers handle words like selfie,
which often compete with native alternatives or alternate spellings like selfi.
They also use mood as an independent marker or emotional tag. Research can
explore how these borrowed terms blend into the local language or become more
specific to see if they follow the same patterns or diverge based on each
language's structure. Moreover, such studies could assess whether young
speakers see these anglicisms as just practical words when native options are
missing, or as signs of closeness, irony, and belonging to a peer group. By
examining code-switching, the use of pragmatic particles, and playful spelling
changes in everyday conversations, future research can capture the ongoing
changes in these loanwords before they either fade away as trendy slang or
become established in common use. Ultimately, including youth language and
online communication in comparative studies will connect static dictionary definitions
with the dynamic reality of modern multilingual interaction.
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[1] Gottlieb's definition of
Anglicisms is interesting: "any individual or systemic language feature
adapted or adopted from English, or inspired or boosted by English models, used
in intralingual communication in a language other than English” (2005: 163).
[2] Furiassi
highlighted, the reasons for choosing an Anglicisms often seem correlated to
“the taste for the exotic” and “the charm of a foreign language” (2010: 63).
[3] Sometimes, as Gottlieb affirms, the
preponderant occurrence of English words into young people’s language means
that there is no lack of a corresponding native term, but rather this
intentional choice of Anglicism is the result of an internalized acquisition of
loanwords (2005).
[4] “La Fundación del
Español Urgente —FundéuRAE (The Urgent Spanish Foundation —FundéuRAE) is a non-profit institution whose main
objective is to promote the proper use of Spanish in the media. Promoted by the
Real Academia Española (RAE) and the EFE Agency, it was created in 2005 as a
result of an agreement between EFE and the BBVA bank, with the advice of the
Real Academia Española” (https://www.fundeu.es/Sobrefundeubbva/quienes-somos/ ).
[5] Snapchat
is a social network much loved by the youngest. In this application, you can
post snaps (photos, selfies and videos to be made directly from the
application) and for this reason, it is a place where it is possible to find a
lot of English words spoken by young people from all over the world.
[6] The
study was carried out in Paris between May and June 2014. One session consisted of a group of five
16-17-year-old French, female teenage friends, and the other session of a five
16-year-old French, male, teenage friends.
